Wa
lala po?
Onda sa ondjala!
Owa za peni?
Oshimbombo oshitoye
Aanegumbo yandje
Kondingosho
Owu uka peni?
Uundjolowele
Omasiku nomathimbo
Ohema ombwanawa
mEgumbo
mOshiwambo!
| Chapter12 mOshiwambo! 
Grammar Corner: Oshiwambo As you probably noticed, the teacher and the kuku in the above dialogue are not speaking exactly the same language. The kuku is speaking Oshindonga, while the teacher, who comes from Endola, speaks Oshikwanyama. Because these native speakers can understand each other, we can think of both Oshikwanyama and Oshindonga as dialects of the Oshiwambo language. Seven different dialects of Oshiwambo are spoken in Namibia: Oshikwanyama, Oshindonga, Oshikolonkadhi, Oshimbalantu, Oshikwaluudhi, Oshingandjera, and Oshikwambi. Only Oshikwanyama and Oshindonga have standard written forms and are taught as subjects in schools. Oshiwambo is a relative newcomer to Namibia. Records of Khoisan speakers dating almost as far back as 30 000 BC have been found in southern Africa. The Khoisan family of languages is best known for its unique “click” sounds. Oshiwambo, on the other hand, is a member of the Bantu language family, which originated around what is now Nigeria. Speakers of proto-Bantu began migrating in search of better farmland five thousand years ago, and arrived in Namibia around 1000 BC. The most widelyspoken languages in Southern and East Africa developed from proto-Bantu, among them Swahili in Kenya and Tanzania, Shona in Zimbabwe, and Zulu in South Africa The Oshiwambo dialects have many differences, but native speakers understand all of them without much difficulty. After learning a few key patterns and words, you will begin to understand other dialects of Oshiwambo, too. For example, th in Oshindonga becomes f in Oshikwanyama. Thus, Aandonga eat oshithima, while Ovakwanyama sup on oshifima. A few of the more common substitutions are listed in the table below.
The structure of the noun classes is the same, but some of the prefixes and object pronouns are different. Readers especially interested in Oshikwanyama should see the companion to this book, Hai ti!. Okwiimba:
Grammar Corner: Making It Simple Let’s face it: noun classes make learning Oshindonga difficult. Not only do you have to recognize the existence of fourteen different kinds of nouns, but you also have to remember fourteen different kinds of possessives, numbers, subject concords, object pronouns, demonstratives, and adjective formations. Ough, Meme. What the Oshiwambo student needs is a mental structure, like a filing cabinet, in which to store all of these linguistic odds and ends. This final grammar corner offers one such model; yours will undoubtedly be different. Let us recall the different object pronouns:
While it might not be easy to memorize 140 things, a list of 14 is possible. From this list one is able to derive all of the rest, albeit with quite a number of rules. However, people and their nouns resist derivation and so must be memorized. Possessives The object pronoun is essentially the prefix for possessives. If the final vowel is i or u and is preceded by a hard consonant (g, l, k), change it to a y (after l) or w (after g and k). Otherwise, drop the final vowel.
Numbers For group 5, the numbers have no prefixes. For the other ones, the object pronoun is the prefix, with the minor change yi =>ii.
Subject concords: present action In most cases, subject concords are formed by putting ota- before the object pronoun. The negative is the same as the positive, but with ita- instead of ota-.
Subject concords: past action Add o- to the object pronoun. Add an -a to the end if there is not already one in the object pronoun, and change li => ly, ua => wa, and ia => a. The negative is just the object pronoun with a prefix of ina- (no changes).
Subject concords: future action Add ka to the end of the present subject concord, as a separate word.
Subject concords: present stative Add o- to the object pronoun. If the last letter is a, change it to e. The negative is the same as the positive, except with ka- rather than o-.
Subject concords: past stative Take the past tense action subject concord (positive or negative) and add li as a separate word. Then add on, as a separate word again, the positive past action subject concord, without the initial o-.
Demonstrative prefixes For the “this” words, note first that the oshi- class has shi- as its prefix, and that the class 5 prefix is ndji-. Otherwise, if the object pronoun starts with a consonant (not y or w), prefix it with n-. Change it so it can be pronounced, nli => ndi and nlu => ndu. For the rest, those beginning with y or w, replace the initial y- or w- with mb-. “That” words are the same, except that they end in -o or -yo.
Adjective formation The adjective prefixes are the same as the noun prefixes, except for class 5 which is very special, and the “concrete adjectives” which use the possessive prefix.
Grammar Corner: Further Reading There are actually quite a number of books out about Oshiwambo, although none of them with the sparkling wit of the present one. Listed below are those we found to be most useful and/or in print. Most can be purchased in The Bookstore in Oshakati. We frequently consulted these books as we wrote this guide. The Green Book: Fivaz (D.) & Shikomba (S.) A Reference Grammar of Oshindonga. Second revised edition, Windhoek: Academy, (1986) 2003. The only comprehensive Oshindonga grammar in English, this pithy tome is ideal for the budding linguist, or the died-in-the-wool masochist. The Yellow Book: Zimmerman (W.) & Hasheela (P.) Oshikwanyama Grammar. Windhoek: Gamsberg Macmillan, 1998. Although its subject is Oshikwanyama, this slim volume is often relevant to our language as well. Caveats: Kwanyama differs significantly in some ways from Ndonga, and the book’s organization resembles a novel of the choose-yourown-adventure variety. The ELCIN Dictionaries: English-Ndonga Dictionary. Compiled by ELCIN Church Council Special Committees Resolution 292/92. Ondangwa: ELCIN Printing Press, 1996. Tirronen (T.) Ndonga-English Dictionary. Ondangwa: ELCIN, 1986. A bit outdated – most people don’t have drawing-rooms these days, for instance – but still the most comprehensive. The Bilingual Dictionary: Viljoen (J.J.), Amakali (P.) & Namuandi (M.) Oshindonga/English English/Oshindonga Embwiitya Dictionary. Windhoek: Gamsberg Macmillan, (1984) 2001. A great resource for learners of both Oshindonga and English, this abridged dictionary contains most of the basic words you’ll need in everyday Oshindonga. Plus, it goes both ways, so you can look up both words you’ve heard and words you’d really like to know. There is also a short grammar reference in the front. Grade School Texts: These can often be found in school storerooms. Although they are all in Oshiwambo, they are easy enough to be useful for the intermediate and advanced students. Next |
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